Beginning of Asia Minor
The reason for the expedition to Asia was to get back the Greek cities in the Achaemenid empire (empire that ruled most of Asia) and to punish the Persians for the expedition of Xerxes. The Greek towns had been taken back before, but the Persians took them back again when the Greeks got divided during the Peloponnesian War. The Greekss had tried to reclaim them at the beginning of the fourth century, but ended up signing a peace treaty with the Persians. Parmenion (Greek general) had captured the Greek towns in 336, but Memnon (Asian King) had took them back. Now, it was Alexander's turn to play the role of conqueror. This was harder than it seemed. The Persians made use of their local advantages. Alexander wanted to use great Greeks too, but they were not trustworthy. He was compelled to create democracies in the Greek towns of Asia. (Jona Lendering)
A second, riskier step, was the appointment of leaders (satraps in Greek). This was interesting, if Alexander wanted to liberate Greek towns in Asia, he didn't need governors. It meant that Alexander wanted to rule these towns. He also started to collect taxes from the towns, which he called 'contributions to the war'. (Jona Lendering)
So far, the expedition had been successful, but there were many difficulties ahead. The largest Greek city on the shore of the Aegean sea was Miletus. It had an great harbor and the Persians could send in as many men as they wanted, because they had more ships than Alexander. The governor of the city had thought about surrender, but when he heard that 400 Persian ships were approaching, he chose to stand his ground. For the first time, Alexander's men were seriously fighting.
Alexander was fortunate, his admiral, Nicanor, occupied a small island, called Lade with 160 ships. This island gave access the entrance to the harbor of Miletus. Three days later, the Persian navy arrived. But the ships were too late, they could not enter Miletus and had to anchor too far to help the seized town, but they were close enough to see how Alexander's siege engines made breaches in the walls and how the Macedonians took the city. Now that Miletus had fallen, there was nothing to do for the Persian navy, and the ships left to Halicarnassus. (Jona Lendering)
A second, riskier step, was the appointment of leaders (satraps in Greek). This was interesting, if Alexander wanted to liberate Greek towns in Asia, he didn't need governors. It meant that Alexander wanted to rule these towns. He also started to collect taxes from the towns, which he called 'contributions to the war'. (Jona Lendering)
So far, the expedition had been successful, but there were many difficulties ahead. The largest Greek city on the shore of the Aegean sea was Miletus. It had an great harbor and the Persians could send in as many men as they wanted, because they had more ships than Alexander. The governor of the city had thought about surrender, but when he heard that 400 Persian ships were approaching, he chose to stand his ground. For the first time, Alexander's men were seriously fighting.
Alexander was fortunate, his admiral, Nicanor, occupied a small island, called Lade with 160 ships. This island gave access the entrance to the harbor of Miletus. Three days later, the Persian navy arrived. But the ships were too late, they could not enter Miletus and had to anchor too far to help the seized town, but they were close enough to see how Alexander's siege engines made breaches in the walls and how the Macedonians took the city. Now that Miletus had fallen, there was nothing to do for the Persian navy, and the ships left to Halicarnassus. (Jona Lendering)
Alexander Consolidates his Support at Asia Minor
After the battle of Granicus, Alexander buried the dead (Macedonians, Greeks and Persians), and sent the captured Greek mercenaries back to Greece to work in the mines, as an object lesson for any Greek who decided to fight for the Persians. He sent some of the goods back to Greece, including three hundred panoplies (complete Persian suits of armor) back to Athens to be dedicated in the Parthenon with the inscription “Alexander, son of Philip and the Greeks, Lacedaemonians (Spartans) excepted, these spoils from the barbarians who dwell in Asia”. (Jona Lendering)
Antipater, who Alexander left in charge of Macedon in his absence, had been given a free chance to put dictators and tyrants wherever he thought were needed to decrease the risk of a rebellion. As Alexander moved deeper into Persia, the threat of trouble seemed to grow. Many of the towns had been ruled for generations by serious tyrants, so in these Persian towns, he did the opposite of what he did in Greece. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and allowed self-government. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. Town after town seemed to surrender to him. The leader at Sardis, as well as his garrison, was among the first of many satraps to give in. (Jona Lendering)
As these leaders and towns gave up, Alexander appointed new ones to replace them. He claimed to distrust the amount of absolute power into anyone’s hands. There appeared to be little change from the old system. Alexander, appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the old leaders, which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government. The true effect was to separate the civil from the financial roles of these former leaders. This ensured that these governments, were technically independent of him, but never truly While this happened, ambassadors from other Greek cities in Asia Minor came to Alexander, surrendering if he allowed their 'democracies' to continue. Alexander let them stay, and allowed them to stop paying taxes to Persia, but only if they joined the League of Corinth. By doing so, they promised to provide monetary support to Alexander. (Jona Lendering)
Antipater, who Alexander left in charge of Macedon in his absence, had been given a free chance to put dictators and tyrants wherever he thought were needed to decrease the risk of a rebellion. As Alexander moved deeper into Persia, the threat of trouble seemed to grow. Many of the towns had been ruled for generations by serious tyrants, so in these Persian towns, he did the opposite of what he did in Greece. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and allowed self-government. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. Town after town seemed to surrender to him. The leader at Sardis, as well as his garrison, was among the first of many satraps to give in. (Jona Lendering)
As these leaders and towns gave up, Alexander appointed new ones to replace them. He claimed to distrust the amount of absolute power into anyone’s hands. There appeared to be little change from the old system. Alexander, appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the old leaders, which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government. The true effect was to separate the civil from the financial roles of these former leaders. This ensured that these governments, were technically independent of him, but never truly While this happened, ambassadors from other Greek cities in Asia Minor came to Alexander, surrendering if he allowed their 'democracies' to continue. Alexander let them stay, and allowed them to stop paying taxes to Persia, but only if they joined the League of Corinth. By doing so, they promised to provide monetary support to Alexander. (Jona Lendering)
Phoenicia
In November 333, the Macedonians had defeated the large army of the Persians, and Alexander was now faced with a difficult choice. He could pursue the defeated Persian King Darius to the east and march on to Persepolis, the Persian capital. He had promised the Macedonians and Greeks at home to punish the Persians for the Xerxes' expedition in 480 BCE. The looting of Persepolis could mean the end of the war. The other way was not to pursue Darius. There were many arguments for this policy, the most important being that the Persian fleet, commanded by a strong Persian Leader, was still in control of the Aegean sea and the Hellespont. Alexander's line of supplies was threatened, and the best thing he could do was to take the Phoenician towns (Aradus, Tripolis, Byblos, Berytus, Sidon and Tyre), where the crews of Pharnabazus' ships came from. The conquest of these towns was a very strategically important. (Jona Lendering)
There were additional advantages to his strategy as well. Alexander could continue to the south and conquer Egypt. On several occasions, the pharaohs of the ancient country along the Nile had sent wheat to Athens; since food crises were common in his conquest Alexander could count on the eternal gratitude of the Macedonians and Greeks if he could open a trade route between Egypt and his homeland. Alexander wanted to go to Egypt because Perseus and Heracles -ancestors of Alexander- had done so. Alexander, who took his ancestry very seriously, this was a very valid reason. A final reason for paying a visit to Egypt, was that the Greeks and Macedonians were fascinated by this country. Business could be combined with pleasure. (Jona Lendering)
There were additional advantages to his strategy as well. Alexander could continue to the south and conquer Egypt. On several occasions, the pharaohs of the ancient country along the Nile had sent wheat to Athens; since food crises were common in his conquest Alexander could count on the eternal gratitude of the Macedonians and Greeks if he could open a trade route between Egypt and his homeland. Alexander wanted to go to Egypt because Perseus and Heracles -ancestors of Alexander- had done so. Alexander, who took his ancestry very seriously, this was a very valid reason. A final reason for paying a visit to Egypt, was that the Greeks and Macedonians were fascinated by this country. Business could be combined with pleasure. (Jona Lendering)
Prolonged War
The vanguard of the Macedonian army was in Parthia (an ancient Iranian Empire). Alexander's attitude had changed. He had insulted his generals on many occasions, had sometimes tried to kill them, and now ordered a state funeral and announced a new war to punish Bessus (A persian leader that killed his friend.) This was to be a very dangerous campaign. Before this, the Macedonians had left the Mediterranean world that they knew well and they had marched through regions of which they had at least known They wanted to go home, but they were about to enter a truly unknown country of which they knew only one thing: that it was inhabited by formidable mounted archers. (Jona Lendering)
Alexander needed the support of the Persian aristocrats and had already decided that the only way to obtain it was to become their king, which meant, he had to take over Bactria (A region in the Persian Empire); The warriors there were swift and could strike from anywhere they wanted, this forced the Macedonians to invade Hyrcania, a tropical region southeast of the Caspian Sea. It was not a very important place, but if it gave Bessus a chance to cut of Alexanders lines of communication. (Jona Lendering)
Alexander needed the support of the Persian aristocrats and had already decided that the only way to obtain it was to become their king, which meant, he had to take over Bactria (A region in the Persian Empire); The warriors there were swift and could strike from anywhere they wanted, this forced the Macedonians to invade Hyrcania, a tropical region southeast of the Caspian Sea. It was not a very important place, but if it gave Bessus a chance to cut of Alexanders lines of communication. (Jona Lendering)
Hyrcania
The Hyrcanian campaign took place in August 330. Two battalion commanders of the army, Craterus and Coenus, defeated the mountain tribes of the Elburz (Mountains near Hyrcania). Now that it was clear that Alexander seriously wanted to punish Bessus, many of Bessus' men came over to the Macedonians. Among them was Artabazus, the father of Alexander's mistress Barsine. He was to stay at the royal court and must have advised Alexander on several important occasions. Another adviser was Bagoas, according to the Roman author Quintus Curtius Rufus 'an exceptionally good-looking eunuch in the very flower of his youth' Who looked up to Alexander. They helped him plan and were able to talk to other Persians because they could speak both languages. (Jona Lendering)
During the Hyrcanian campaign, a terrible incident took place. One of the mountain tribes, caught Alexander's war horse Bucephalus during a fight. Immediately, the Macedonian king announced that he would come to them and would kill them all. The tribesmen understood that a threat of genocide was to be taken serious and returned the horse immediately. It is one of the moments that we can see, as it were, "through our sources" and catch a glimpse of what must have been the real Alexander. (Jona Lendering)
During the Hyrcanian campaign, a terrible incident took place. One of the mountain tribes, caught Alexander's war horse Bucephalus during a fight. Immediately, the Macedonian king announced that he would come to them and would kill them all. The tribesmen understood that a threat of genocide was to be taken serious and returned the horse immediately. It is one of the moments that we can see, as it were, "through our sources" and catch a glimpse of what must have been the real Alexander. (Jona Lendering)
Kings new Clothes
The next stage in the war was the march along the road that is now called the Silk road, through Parthia to Aria. It was at Susia (In between Parthia and Aria) that the Macedonians had to make a very important strategic decision. The generals knew that their enemy, Bessus was in Bactria, and the shortest way there was the Silk road, which led through the desert and Oasis to Bactria. The other road was a detour, through the mountains of many different countries. The first route was easier and shorter, but was exposed to hostile attacks of Bessus' mounted archers; therefore, Alexander decided to go to through the detour. He fought many different people and took over capitals. He named five different cities Alexandria at this time. (Jona Lendering)
It was in August-September 330 that the first complaints about Alexander's clothes were voiced. Alexander started to wear a diadem, a girdle and a white-and-purple striped tunic. Several Greek authors wrote that these were the Persia royal clothes. Alexander was one of the first Greek monarchs to dress himself in a multicolored tunic and to wear a diadem. (Jona Lendering)
Although the diadem and the striped tunic were nothing new and the least offensive parts of the Persian royal wardrobe, the Macedonians did not like that their king had started to wear them. According to them, the son of Zeus Amun, (a religious figurehead) was now dressing like a god. Alexander knew that his men would be offended, but he needed to wear the diadem, the girdle and the tunic: it was a way to show to the Persians that he really wanted to be their king. He was now also driving a chariot. (Jona Lendering)
It was in August-September 330 that the first complaints about Alexander's clothes were voiced. Alexander started to wear a diadem, a girdle and a white-and-purple striped tunic. Several Greek authors wrote that these were the Persia royal clothes. Alexander was one of the first Greek monarchs to dress himself in a multicolored tunic and to wear a diadem. (Jona Lendering)
Although the diadem and the striped tunic were nothing new and the least offensive parts of the Persian royal wardrobe, the Macedonians did not like that their king had started to wear them. According to them, the son of Zeus Amun, (a religious figurehead) was now dressing like a god. Alexander knew that his men would be offended, but he needed to wear the diadem, the girdle and the tunic: it was a way to show to the Persians that he really wanted to be their king. He was now also driving a chariot. (Jona Lendering)
Religious Problems
Although Alexander's policy to appease the Iranian population was sincere, it was doomed. He tried to be the kind of king the Persians wanted, but a lot of the time, he did not understand Persian behavior. Sometimes he would seriously offend the persians without even knowing. For example, Alexander's coins were extremely offending to his new subjects: they showed their new king as Heracles, wearing a lion's skin. He resembled one of the helpers of Angra Mainyu, 'the hostile spirit', the personification of evil in the Persian Religion. (Jona Lendering)
Fortunately, there were always people like Artabazus, Barsine, Pharnabazus, Amminapes and Bagoas, who would explain that the insult had not been intended. During this time, Alexander has religious specialists known a Magians who would help communicate their religion to the Persian's religion. Our Greek sources frequently mention the Magians at Alexander's court performing their usual incantations and prayers. This proves that there was collaboration and, that Alexander asked the Magians for advice. It is also certain that Alexander's teacher, the philosopher Aristotle, published a book that was called The Magian. It is now lost, but it is mentioned in the History of philosophy by Diogenes Laertius and it probably contained a positive evaluation of the teachings of the Magians. (Jona Lendering)
On the other hand, the Persian tradition is unanimous that Alexander killed several high priests, judges, and masters of the Magians and upholders of the religion. They did this for religious sacrifice and caused great devastation to the Persians. This 'evil-destined and raging villain' was not just regarded as a worker of Angra Mainyu, but as one one of the people that the evil one had sent to earth to destroy what is good. Alexander even received the surname Guzastag, the Accursed, a title that has only been used to describe Angra Mainyu. It is possible -perhaps even likely- that several apocalyptic texts from the Avesta (ancient scripts of Persian Religion) were composed during the reign of Alexander. (Jona Lendering)
Fortunately, there were always people like Artabazus, Barsine, Pharnabazus, Amminapes and Bagoas, who would explain that the insult had not been intended. During this time, Alexander has religious specialists known a Magians who would help communicate their religion to the Persian's religion. Our Greek sources frequently mention the Magians at Alexander's court performing their usual incantations and prayers. This proves that there was collaboration and, that Alexander asked the Magians for advice. It is also certain that Alexander's teacher, the philosopher Aristotle, published a book that was called The Magian. It is now lost, but it is mentioned in the History of philosophy by Diogenes Laertius and it probably contained a positive evaluation of the teachings of the Magians. (Jona Lendering)
On the other hand, the Persian tradition is unanimous that Alexander killed several high priests, judges, and masters of the Magians and upholders of the religion. They did this for religious sacrifice and caused great devastation to the Persians. This 'evil-destined and raging villain' was not just regarded as a worker of Angra Mainyu, but as one one of the people that the evil one had sent to earth to destroy what is good. Alexander even received the surname Guzastag, the Accursed, a title that has only been used to describe Angra Mainyu. It is possible -perhaps even likely- that several apocalyptic texts from the Avesta (ancient scripts of Persian Religion) were composed during the reign of Alexander. (Jona Lendering)
Philotas Affair
Macedonian discontent probably played a role in the Philotas affair, a double conspiracy that was discovered when the vanguard of Alexander's army was at Drangiana, in October 330. The accused, Philotas, was a son of Parmenion the commander of the Cavalry, and therefore one of the most important men in the Macedonian army. He was said to have known of an earlier conspiracy and not to have reported it. At first, Alexander forgave Philotas, but the next day, after new accusations by the phalanx commanders Craterus and Coenus, he organized a trial where he accused philotas; the court found Philotas guilty and the executioners speared or stoned him and a few others to death. It looks weird, when a trial when two separate generals are accusing each eachother at the same time. Many Macedonians believed that Alexander had started to behave like a paranoid dictator who saw conspiracies everywhere. No historians are sure of the plot of philotas. It could have put Alexander in danger, or it could have just been soldiers than want to go home. (Jona Lendering)
We will never know for certain what Philotas' plans were, but the fact that soldiers wanted to kill their successful commander is important. It shows that the rank and file were starting to feel uneasy about the prolonged war and their king's rule. No one can be certain about the conspirators' motive, but this assumption is possible. After this, Alexander suddenly changed from his policy of not appointing Persians as generals to letting them rule. Arachosia (region near Aria) received a Macedonian governor. (Jona Lendering)
After the Philotas affair, sources do not mention generals like Parmenion anymore. Instead, there were several commanders:Perdiccas, Craterus, and Coenus for example, and Clitus andHephaestion, who were to share the command of the Companion Cavalry. Alexander may have found their rivalries comforting. As long as they were quarreling about his favors, they were no threat to his own position. (Jona Lendering)
We will never know for certain what Philotas' plans were, but the fact that soldiers wanted to kill their successful commander is important. It shows that the rank and file were starting to feel uneasy about the prolonged war and their king's rule. No one can be certain about the conspirators' motive, but this assumption is possible. After this, Alexander suddenly changed from his policy of not appointing Persians as generals to letting them rule. Arachosia (region near Aria) received a Macedonian governor. (Jona Lendering)
After the Philotas affair, sources do not mention generals like Parmenion anymore. Instead, there were several commanders:Perdiccas, Craterus, and Coenus for example, and Clitus andHephaestion, who were to share the command of the Companion Cavalry. Alexander may have found their rivalries comforting. As long as they were quarreling about his favors, they were no threat to his own position. (Jona Lendering)
Afganistan
Feeling safe again, Alexander could continue his march to the East, into modern Afghanistan. In December, the reinforcements, commanded by Clitus (commander of Macedonian army), united with the vanguard in Arachosia, and after its capital Kapišakaniš had been renamed, the young Macedonian king led his army, now 60,000 men strong, through the country along the Tarnak river. It was a difficult march, because supplies could not be moved by wagon and pack animals would frequently fall on the dangerous, snow-clad roads. (Jona Lendering)
At this moment, a messenger told the Macedonian high command that Satibarzanes (Persian Leader) had returned to Aria and was enticing his former subjects to revolt. This was a serious threat to Alexander, he sent 6,000 men back to Aria, commanded by his trusted Persian officers Artabazus and Erigyius. They s killed him in a single combat. However, Aria remained unquiet for two more years. Marching along the Tarnak the Macedonians reached Gandara, the country near modern Kabul, in April 329. He refounded a Persian city and called it Alexandria in the Caucasus; many Macedonian and Greek veterans were left behind. The city was to serve as base for future operations on the other side of the Hindu Kush mountains. (Jona Lendering)
The historians of Alexander's campaign tell how the Macedonians saw the cave of Prometheus. According to Greek myth, Prometheus was the demi-god who had given fire to humankind and had been punished by the supreme god Zeus. He had been bound to a mountain and Zeus' eagle had come every night to devour Prometheus' liver. It is unclear what the Macedonians have seen and how it reminded them of this story, but it is also referred to by the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang mentions, exactly at this place. (Jona Lendering)
At this moment, a messenger told the Macedonian high command that Satibarzanes (Persian Leader) had returned to Aria and was enticing his former subjects to revolt. This was a serious threat to Alexander, he sent 6,000 men back to Aria, commanded by his trusted Persian officers Artabazus and Erigyius. They s killed him in a single combat. However, Aria remained unquiet for two more years. Marching along the Tarnak the Macedonians reached Gandara, the country near modern Kabul, in April 329. He refounded a Persian city and called it Alexandria in the Caucasus; many Macedonian and Greek veterans were left behind. The city was to serve as base for future operations on the other side of the Hindu Kush mountains. (Jona Lendering)
The historians of Alexander's campaign tell how the Macedonians saw the cave of Prometheus. According to Greek myth, Prometheus was the demi-god who had given fire to humankind and had been punished by the supreme god Zeus. He had been bound to a mountain and Zeus' eagle had come every night to devour Prometheus' liver. It is unclear what the Macedonians have seen and how it reminded them of this story, but it is also referred to by the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang mentions, exactly at this place. (Jona Lendering)